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@InCollection{Berry95,
  author =       "Joseph K. Berry",
  title =        "Implications of a humane {GIS}",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "57--62",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "GIS technology is evolving from mapping and spatial
                 database management to modelling of complex
                 interactions among mapped variables. The digital maps
                 derived through spatial modelling are inherently
                 different from traditional paper maps, composed of the
                 inked lines, shading and graphic symbols used to
                 identify the precise placement of physical features.
                 The modelled map is conceptual, reflecting the logical
                 reasoning of the analyst- more a spatial expression
                 (application model) than a simple geographic
                 coincidence of base map themes (data sandwich). Within
                 the computer industry, protocols, such as graphical
                 user interface (GUI), desktop software integration, and
                 computer-aided software engineering (CASE), are being
                 used for a more user-friendly (humane) computing
                 environment. In GIS, these protocols need to be
                 extended to a dynamic map pedigree to communicate the
                 conceptual framework of application models and enable
                 their interactive use. This chapter describes the
                 considerations and implications of a spatial modelling
                 environment which directly engages the end user.",
}

@InCollection{Burrough95,
  author =       "P. A. Burrough",
  title =        "Accuracy and error in {GIS}",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "87--91",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "The development and application of geographical
                 information systems has, with the notable exception of
                 geometrical accuracy, paid little attention to the more
                 general issues of quality and error. To a very large
                 extent, the quality of GIS products has been judged by
                 the cartographic quality of the visual output: few have
                 asked questions about how well the final product
                 actually conveys a reliable image of the real world.
                 Any manufacturing process needs raw materials,
                 components, and procedures that meet certain standards
                 in materials and tolerances to ensure that the product
                 is reliable. Accuracy and error issues lie at the heart
                 of all GIS applications because erroneous, and
                 therefore expensive-to-correct conclusions could be
                 drawn when the data misrepresent the real world. In
                 many circumstances it could be very difficult at
                 present to decide if the cause of the fault lay in the
                 definition of the problem, the quality of the source
                 data, the skills of the data analyst or the
                 presentation of the results.",
}

@InCollection{Dansby95,
  author =       "H. Bishop Dansby",
  title =        "Access to digital data in {US} federal agencies",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "93--99",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "Digital data and geographic information system data,
                 in particular, have focused attention on the open
                 records acts of the states and on the federal Freedom
                 of Information Act (FOIA). A number of local
                 governments in the United States seek what amounts to a
                 departure from traditional notions of open records to
                 charge for or restrict the distribution of governmental
                 data. Various strategies for achieving this have been
                 discussed or actually implemented around the country.
                 Federal FOIA law is highly developed in that the act is
                 long-standing, it has undergone some amendments but
                 without substantial departure from its original
                 premises, and the case law has dealt with almost every
                 major issue. At the federal level, at least, we are not
                 dealing with a vacuum of precedent that might otherwise
                 invite drastic changes in policy.",
}

@InCollection{Goodchild95,
  author =       "Michael Goodchild",
  title =        "Information highways",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "107--111",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "Over the past two years or so the concept of an
                 Information Superhighway has rooted itself firmly in
                 the American imagination. Much of this dates from the
                 election in 1992 of an Administration known to be
                 strongly supportive of public investment in advanced
                 communication infrastructure, and a President with an
                 electronic mail address, and it has been fuelled
                 further by a series of dramatic corporate mergers
                 between traditional communication suppliers, software
                 vendors, and media conglomerates. This chapter looks at
                 what the information highway means for geographic data.
                 Although the media have been accused of over-hyping the
                 concept, with justification in some cases, there are
                 grounds to believe that the potential of the
                 information highway is particularly exciting for
                 geographic data. The Interstate Highway metaphor
                 suggests that the public sector should fund the
                 construction of the network, but says nothing about the
                 cost of the goods that travel on it. Yet the Internet's
                 development has been steeped in altruism, and its users
                 are likely to resist any kind of payment strongly.",
}

@InCollection{Green95,
  author =       "David R. Green",
  title =        "An exciting new role in {GIS} for the cartographer of
                 the future",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "63--72",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "Today the appearance of maps is changing quite
                 markedly. Greater emphasis, in particular, is once
                 again being placed upon the graphic and artistic
                 element and visualization as a fundamental means of
                 communicating information. New technologies, people,
                 definitions, access to technology, ideas, demands, and
                 uses for maps are all having a significant impact upon
                 their appearance. Largely the product of an electronic
                 medium, many of these maps are also increasingly being
                 used in a computer environment by a growing number of
                 people, from widely differing backgrounds, many of whom
                 have little cartographic knowledge, training, or
                 experience. However, it is argued that such
                 developments, far from signalling the end of
                 cartography, in fact mark the beginning of a completely
                 new direction, with significant new opportunities that
                 will both enhance and strengthen this discipline in the
                 future. Cartographers will need to provide guidance for
                 the 'new cartography', which is currently lacking or
                 only now beginning to develop, and lead the way in the
                 development of new ideas and rules. For cartography to
                 move forward it is also anticipated that cartographers
                 will increasingly interact with more people from
                 outside their discipline and will no longer remain
                 quite so isolated as in the past.",
}

@InCollection{Ives95,
  author =       "M. J. Ives and K. J. Crawley",
  title =        "{GIS} implementation issues",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "39--43",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "In GIS implementation, translating ideas into reality
                 is a primary concern. The main goal is to deliver a
                 working system to a business where expectations and
                 understanding will run across the whole spectrum. At
                 the same time, implementation of a GIS means the
                 introduction of the biggest company cultural change
                 since the accountants changed from using quill pens and
                 ledger books to computers, over many years using
                 incremental technology changes. An effective project
                 manager and team that addresses the necessary issues
                 will give the best chance of a GIS implementation.",
}

@InCollection{Laurini95,
  author =       "Robert Laurini",
  title =        "Distributed geographic databases: an overview",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "45--55",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "Currently, the number of Geographic Information
                 Systems (GIS) of all kinds installed all over the world
                 is increasing, varying from municipal management to
                 tourism and archaeology. Among the important features
                 of future GIS will be the need to share information in
                 different databases- firstly in order not to duplicate
                 existing data but also to benefit from the newest
                 updates located in other databases. In this paper, an
                 overview of the problems to be solved in order to
                 implement and run distributed geographic databases is
                 given. Some general information is given regarding
                 distributed databases. Some elements concerning
                 decomposition or data fragmentation are discussed and
                 several aspects concerning integration of heterogeneous
                 geographic databases will be developed. The main
                 challenges facing distributed databases will be the
                 creation of networks of geographic databases which are
                 updated daily for several activities, in other words
                 combining updating and sharing.",
}

@InCollection{Maguire95,
  author =       "David J. Maguire and Jack Dangermond",
  title =        "Future {GIS} technology",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "113--120",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "Geographical information systems are computer-based
                 systems for the collection, storage, management,
                 analysis and presentation of geographical (spatial)
                 data. A GIS comprises five important and interrelated
                 components: hardware; software; data; people and
                 procedures. This paper is concerned with the technology
                 of GIS- the hardware and software components- and their
                 impact on data, people and procedures. In particular it
                 looks at technology trends and the likely impact of new
                 technology on GIS.",
}

@InCollection{Marble95,
  author =       "Duane F. Marble",
  title =        "An introduction to the structured design of geographic
                 information systems",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "31--38",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "A concern with design in any area of human activity
                 arises out of a desire to avoid, in as far as possible,
                 the unhappy consequences of failure. Even good design
                 cannot always ensure success; it merely shifts the odds
                 in our favour. Proper design can play a major role in
                 increasing the probability of success in GIS
                 implementation. A GIS is complex, and design
                 methodologies capable of dealing with its many
                 ramifications are, to date, complex as well. The GIS
                 design model represents what appears to be the best,
                 most viable combination of traditional and modern
                 design methodologies. The model has worked well in both
                 public and private sector applications and it will
                 continue to evolve as our collective experience with
                 successful and unsuccessful GIS implementations grows
                 and some of the major gaps begin to be filled.",
}

@InCollection{Newell95,
  author =       "Dick Newell",
  title =        "Where is {GIS} technology going?",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "19--23",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "One of the main reasons for failed GIS projects in the
                 past is rooted in inadequate technology in that the
                 major technological innovations and great leaps forward
                 seldom come directly as a result of asking customers
                 how to mould technology. That is not to say the vendors
                 should not be highly aware of their customers'
                 businesses, but successful software companies are those
                 that come up with solutions that are not obvious.
                 Progress in the GIS industry is driven from two ends:
                 customer demands and technological advance. The thing
                 fuelling advances in software is radical change in
                 hardware, especially the performance of silicon, and
                 more recently the vast improvements in the
                 communications networks of the world.",
}

@InCollection{Petrie95,
  author =       "G. Petrie",
  title =        "Photogrammetry and remote sensing",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "73--85",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "Traditionally photogrammetry is associated with
                 measurements made on the hardcopy photographs produced
                 by aerial cameras. At medium and small scales, it
                 allowed, for the first time, the detailed mapping,
                 including the provision of accurate heights and
                 contours, of hilly and mountainous areas. At large
                 scales, it was also possible to compile highly accurate
                 line maps and measured point data in the form of
                 three-dimensional coordinates for use in engineering,
                 cadastral and other applications. However, over the
                 last twenty or thirty years, with the development of
                 remote sensing, photogrammetrists have also had to face
                 the challenge of measuring objects recorded by types of
                 imaging devices other than the aerial camera. As a
                 result, many new procedures and instruments have had to
                 be devised to deal with these images with their complex
                 and unusual geometries. Photogrammetric techniques are
                 fundamental to the use of remotely sensed imagery if it
                 is to be applied to mapping or Digital Elevation Model
                 (DEM) construction or for the input of data to GIS
                 systems. This applies not only to individual images,
                 but in particular to situations where multi-temporal
                 imagery is to be utilized to detect change detection.",
}

@InCollection{Rhind95,
  author =       "David Rhind",
  title =        "Spatial data from government",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "101--106",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "The future growth of GIS and its range of applications
                 is not simply determined by the advent of new
                 technology: such technology enables but does not
                 dictate destiny. In practice, the expansion of use of
                 GIS for operational tasks- as opposed to one-off
                 research experiments- is bound up with the national
                 political culture, the organization of the state's
                 bodies, international obligations and history. One
                 reason for this is that the availability and supply of
                 spatial data- a key determinant of GIS expansion- is
                 largely determined by these factors. Informed
                 discussion of data supply issues requires that GIS
                 users and others are more aware of the factors involved
                 than is currently the case. Government policies
                 relating to the availability and supply of data are
                 highly complex, constantly mutating and (in the main)
                 nationally-orientated at present. What will happen over
                 the next 20 years is impossible to predict but cost
                 recovery through data sales will spread further both
                 within Britain and in certain other countries in the
                 short term. The overall effect of this on the growth of
                 the GIS market will be unpredictable to a significant
                 degree but it will certainly have some benefits and
                 disbenefits.",
}

@InCollection{Rix95,
  author =       "David Rix",
  title =        "Recent trends in {GIS} technology",
  booktitle =    "The AGI Source Book for Geographic Information
                 Systems",
  pages =        "25--29",
  year =         "1995",
  copyright =    "Copyright 1994, The Association for Geographic
                 Information",
  abstract =     "There is a requirement for much pragmatism in the
                 implementation of GIS. GIS provides the potential for
                 much spatial reasoning and spatial modelling. However,
                 for many potential users of GIS the need for these is
                 negligible. Much of the requirement is to support
                 existing business processes, whether simple inventories
                 or transaction-based processes, with a spatial context.
                 The development of more robust and functional software
                 continues apace and we have witnessed the dawn of the
                 'object' era. Users are now better supplied, and have a
                 much wider choice of data than at any time and the
                 industry is now emerging from the dark ages of simple
                 'carto-data' into the renaissance of 'info-data'.",
}
